Exposure to Mercury in the Air and Its Effect on Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD)
-
Abdolkazem Neisi
,
Fatemeh Koshki Nasab
,
Arefeh Sepahvand
,
Bita Falahi
,
Masoume Taherian
,
Ali Farhadi
,
Parisa Asban
,
Nastaran Taleb Pour
,
Majid Farhadi
,
Abdullah Darghahi
Abstract
Background: We aimed to verify the exposure to mercury in the air and its effect on cardiovascular disorders.
Methods: The review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, and national databases (such as SID) from 1995-2022.
Results: Mercury exposure can cause many disorders in humans, including neurodevelopmental disorders in fetuses and children, adverse cardiovascular outcomes, hypertension, and diabetes. Mercury is a human neurotoxin, and in recent years its potentially harmful effects on cardiovascular disease (CVD) have raised concerns, mainly due to mercury's role in reducing oxidative stress.
Conclusion: Possible mechanisms of mercury toxicity in CVD include mercury-selenium interaction, increased lipid peroxidation, and oxidative stress. In this article, we review studies that have investigated the relationship between mercury and CVD.
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2. Lamborg CH, Hammerschmidt CR, Bowman KL, et al (2014). A global ocean inventory of anthropogenic mercury based on water column measurements. Nature, 512(7512):65-8.
3. Bank MS(2012). Mercury in the Environment. University of California Press.
4. Higueras P, Fernández-Martínez R, Esbrí JM, et al(2015). Mercury soil pollution in Spain: a review. Environment, Energy and Climate Change, 135-58.
5. Zadnik V, Pompe-Kirn V(2007). Effects of 500-year mercury mining and milling on cancer incidence in the region of Idrija, Slovenia. Coll Antropol, 31(3):897-903.
6. Genchi G, Sinicropi MS, Carocci A, et al (2017). Mercury exposure and heart diseases. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 14(1):74.
7. Li Y, Zhao J, Li Y, Xu X, et al(2015). Studies on the environmental health effects and ecotoxicology of mercury by synchrotron radiation-based techniques. Scientia Sinica Chimica, 45(6):597-613.
8. Roth GA, Johnson C, Abajobir A, et al(2017). Global, regional, and national burden of cardiovascular diseases for 10 causes, 1990 to 2015. J Am Coll Cardiol, 70(1):1-25.
9. WHO(2007). Preventing disease through healthy environments: exposure to mercury: a major public health concern. World Health Organization.
10. Sinicropi MS, Caruso A, Capasso A, et al (2010). Heavy metals: Toxicity and carcinogenicity. Pharmacologyonline,2:329-33.
11. Carocci A, Catalano A, Lauria G, et al (2016). Lead toxicity, antioxidant defense, and environment. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol, 238:45-67.
12. Sinicropi MS, Amantea D, Caruso A, et al (2010). Chemical and biological properties of toxic metals and use of chelating agents for the pharmacological treatment of metal poisoning. Arch Toxicol, 84(7):501-20.
13. Bernhoft RA(2012). Mercury toxicity and treatment: a review of the literature. J Environ Public Health, 2012: 460508.
14. Driscoll CT, Mason RP, Chan HM, et al. (2013) Mercury as a global pollutant: sources, pathways, and effects. Environ Sci Technol, 47(10):4967-83.
15. Ballatori N, Clarkson TW(1985). Biliary secretion of glutathione and of glutathione-metal complexes. Fundam Appl Toxicol, 5(5):816-31.
16. Ullrich SM, Tanton TW, Abdrashitova SA (2001). Mercury in the aquatic environment: a review of factors affecting methylation. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 31(3):241-93.
17. Fitzgerald WF, Lamborg CH, Hammerschmidt CR (2007). Marine biogeochemical cycling of mercury. Chem Rev, 107(2):641-62.
18. Clarkson TW, Vyas JB, Ballatori N(2007). Mechanisms of mercury disposition in the body. Am J Ind Med, 50(10):757-64.
19. Compeau G, Bartha R(1985). Sulfate-reducing bacteria: principal methylators of mercury in anoxic estuarine sediment. Appl Environ Microbiol, 50(2):498-502.
20. Dargahi A, Rahimpouran S, Rad HM, et al(2023). Investigation of the link between the type and concentrations of heavy metals and other elements in blood and urinary stones and their association with environmental factors and dietary patterns. J Trace Elem Med Biol, 80:127270.
21. Clarkson TW, Magos L(2006). The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds. Crit Rev Toxicol, 36(8):609-62.
22. Pacyna EG, Pacyna J, Sundseth K, et al(2010). Global emission of mercury to the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources in 2005 and projections to 2020. Atmospheric Environment, 44(20):2487-99.
23. Futsaeter G, Wilson S, editors(2013). The UNEP global mercury assessment: sources, emissions and transport. E3S Web of Conferences, EDP Sciences.
24. Cohen MD, Draxler RR, Artz RS, et al(2016). Modeling the global atmospheric transport and deposition of mercury to the Great LakesGlobal atmospheric transport and deposition of mercury to the Great Lakes. Science of the Anthropocene, 4.
25. Pacyna JM, Travnikov O, De Simone F, et al(2016). Current and future levels of mercury atmospheric pollution on a global scale. Atmos Chem Phys, 16(19):12495-511.
26. Lindberg SE, Brooks S, Lin C-J, et al (2002). Dynamic oxidation of gaseous mercury in the Arctic troposphere at polar sunrise. Environ Sci Technol, 36(6):1245-56.
27. Mason R, Pirrone N, Hedgecock I, et al (2010). Conceptual overview. Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution 2010: Part B: Mercury. 1-26.
28. Selin NE, Jacob DJ, Park RJ, et al(2007). Chemical cycling and deposition of atmospheric mercury: Global constraints from observations. J Geophys Res,112(D02308).
29. Munthe J, Kindbom K, Pacyna J, et al(2010). Study on mercury sources and emissions, and analysis of cost and effectiveness of control measures-“UNEP Paragraph 29 study”. DTIE, Chemicals Branch, United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), 70pp.
30. Rafaj P, Cofala J, Kuenen J, et al (2014). Benefits of European climate policies for mercury air pollution. Atmosphere, 5(1):45-59.
31. Wilson S, Munthe J, Sundseth K, et al(2010). Updating Historical Global Inventories of Anthropogenic Mercury Emissions to Air. AMAP Technical Report No. 3 (2010). AMAP.
32. Pacyna JM, Sundseth K, Pacyna EG, et al(2010). An assessment of costs and benefits associated with mercury emission reductions from major anthropogenic sources. J Air Waste Manag Assoc, 60(3):302-15.
33. Wilson S, Kindbom K, Yaramenka K, et al (2012). Part A: global emissions of mercury to the atmosphere. In: Technical Background Report to the Global Mercury Assessment. UNEP/AMAP.
34. Driscoll CT, Mason RP, Chan HM, et al (2013). Mercury as a global pollutant: sources, pathways, and effects. Environ Sci Technol, 47(10):4967-83.
35. Lalonde JD, Amyot M, Doyon MR, et al (2003). Photo‐induced Hg (II) reduction in snow from the remote and temperate Experimental Lakes Area (Ontario, Canada). Journal of Geophysical Research (Atmospheres), 108(D6):4200.
36. O'Connor D, Hou D, Ok YS, et al (2019). Mercury speciation, transformation, and transportation in soils, atmospheric flux, and implications for risk management: A critical review. Environ Int, 126:747-61.
37. Neisi A, Farhadi M, Cheraghian B, et al (2024). Consumption of foods contaminated with heavy metals and their association with cardiovascular disease (CVD) using GAM software (cohort study). Heliyon, 10(2):e24517.
38. Tabandeh L, Khorramabadi GS, Karami A, et al (2016). Evaluation of heavy metal contamination and scaling and corrosion potential in drinking water resources in Nurabad city of Lorestan, Iran. International Journal of Pharmacy & Technology, 8:13137-54.
39. Sundseth K, Pacyna JM, Banel A, et al (2015). Climate change impacts on environmental and human exposure to mercury in the Arctic. Int J Environ Res Public Health,12(4):3579-99.
40. Chen L, Wang H, Liu J, et al(2014). Intercontinental transport and deposition patterns of atmospheric mercury from anthropogenic emissions. Atmos Chem Phys,14(18):10163-10176.
41. Pirrone N, Cinnirella S, Feng X, et al(2010). Global mercury emissions to the atmosphere from anthropogenic and natural sources. Atmos Chem Phys, 10(13):5951-64.
42. Cairns E, Tharumakulasingam K, Athar M, et al(2011). Source, concentration, and distribution of elemental mercury in the atmosphere in Toronto, Canada. Environ Pollut,159(8-9):2003-8.
43. Lee DS, Dollard GJ, Pepler S(1998). Gas-phase mercury in the atmosphere of the United Kingdom. Atmospheric Environment, 32(5):855-64.
44. Schiavo B, Morton-Bermea O, Salgado-Martínez E, et al (2022). Health risk assessment of gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) in Mexico City. Environ Monit Assess, 194(7):456.
45. Wang Z-w, Chen Z-s, Duan N, et al (2007). Gaseous elemental mercury concentration in atmosphere at urban and remote sites in China. J Environ Sci (China), 19(2):176-80.
46. Wang S, Feng X, Qiu G, et al (2005). Mercury emission to atmosphere from Lanmuchang Hg–Tl mining area, Southwestern Guizhou, China. Atmospheric Environment, 39(39):7459-73.
47. Ebinghaus R, Kock HH, Coggins AM, et al (2002). Long-term measurements of atmospheric mercury at Mace Head, Irish west coast, between 1995 and 2001. Atmospheric Environment, 36(34):5267-76.
48. Kock HH, Bieber E, Ebinghaus R, et al B(2005). Comparison of long-term trends and seasonal variations of atmospheric mercury concentrations at the two European coastal monitoring stations Mace Head, Ireland, and Zingst, Germany. Atmospheric Environment, 39(39):7549-56.
49. Korejwo E, Saniewska D, Bełdowska M (2020). Fractionation of mercury in aerosols of the southern Baltic coastal zone. Atmospheric Environment, 235:117623.
50. Wängberg I, Munthe J, Pirrone N, et al(2001). Atmospheric mercury distribution in Northern Europe and in the Mediterranean region. Atmospheric Environment, 35(17):3019-25.
51. Steffen A, Schroeder W, Bottenheim J, et al (2002). Atmospheric mercury concentrations: measurements and profiles near snow and ice surfaces in the Canadian Arctic during Alert 2000. Atmospheric Environment, 36(15):2653-61.
52. Fu X, Feng X, Zhu W, et al (2008). Total gaseous mercury concentrations in ambient air in the eastern slope of Mt. Gongga, South-Eastern fringe of the Tibetan plateau, China. Atmospheric Environment, 42(5):970-9.
53. Peate I(2020). The circulatory system. British Journal of Healthcare Assistants, 14(11):548-553.
54. Mendis S, Puska P, Norrving B, et al (2011). Global atlas on cardiovascular disease prevention and control. WHO.
55. Jackson CL, Redline S, Emmons KM(2015). Sleep as a potential fundamental contributor to cardiovascular health disparities. Annu Rev Public Health, 36:417-40.
56. Kelly BB, Fuster V. Promoting cardiovascular health in the developing world. a critical challenge to achieve global health. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2010.
57. Khlifi R, Hamza-Chaffai A(2010). Head and neck cancer due to heavy metal exposure via tobacco smoking and professional exposure: a review. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 248(2):71-88.
58. Flora S, Mittal M, Mehta A(2008). Heavy metal induced oxidative stress & its possible reversal by chelation therapy. Indian J Med Res, 128(4):501-23.
59. Jaishankar M, Tseten T, Anbalagan N, et al (2014). Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals. Interdiscip Toxicol, 7(2):60-72.
60. Rosamond W, Flegal K, Friday G, et al(2007). Heart disease and stroke statistics—2007 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation, 115(5):e69-171.
61. Organization WH(2004). Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease: Report of a WHO expert Consultation, Geneva, 29 October-1 November, 2001: WHO.
62. Control CfD, Prevention (2002). The burden of chronic diseases and their risk factors: national and state perspectives, CDC.
63. Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, et al (2006). Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data. Lancet, 367(9524):1747-57.
64. Kraemer HC, Stice E, Kazdin A, et al (2001). How do risk factors work together? Mediators, moderators, and independent, overlapping, and proxy risk factors. Am J Psychiatry, 158(6):848-56.
65. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME). Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Seattle, WA: IHME, 2018. https://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/policy_report/2019/GBD_2017_Booklet.pdf
66. Nepogodiev D, Martin J, Biccard B, et al(2019). Global burden of postoperative death. Lancet, 393(10170):401.
67. Zhao D, Liu J, Wang M, et al (2019). Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in China: current features and implications. Nat Rev Cardiol, 16(4):203-12.
68. Zhao D, Liu J, Wang W, et al (2008). Epidemiological transition of stroke in China: twenty-one–year observational study from the Sino-MONICA-Beijing Project. Stroke, 39(6):1668-74.
69. Farina M, Aschner M, Rocha JBT(2011). Oxidative stress in MeHg-induced neurotoxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 256(3):405-17.
70. Zalups RK(2000). Molecular Interactions with Mercury in the Kidney. Pharmacol Rev, 52(1):113-43.
71. Moris D, Spartalis M, Spartalis E, et al (2017). The role of reactive oxygen species in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases and the clinical significance of myocardial redox. Ann Transl Med, 5(16):326.
72. Kulka M (2016). A review of paraoxonase 1 properties and diagnostic applications. Pol J Vet Sci, 19(1):225-32.
73. Mallat Z, Lambeau G, Tedgui A(2010). Lipoprotein-associated and secreted phospholipases A₂ in cardiovascular disease: roles as biological effectors and biomarkers. Circulation,122(21):2183-200.
74. Houston MC (2014). The role of mercury in cardiovascular disease. J Cardiovasc Dis Diagn, 2:5.
75. Salonen JT, Seppänen K, Nyyssönen K, et al (1995). Intake of mercury from fish, lipid peroxidation, and the risk of myocardial infarction and coronary, cardiovascular, and any death in eastern Finnish men. Circulation, 91(3):645-55.
76. InSug O, Datar S, Koch CJ, et al (1997). Mercuric compounds inhibit human monocyte function by inducing apoptosis: evidence for formation of reactive oxygen species, development of mitochondrial membrane permeability transition and loss of reductive reserve.Toxicology, 124(3):211-24.
77. Lund B-O, Miller DM, Woods JS (1993). Studies on Hg(II)-induced H2O2 formation and oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro in rat kidney mitochondria. Biochem Pharmacol, 45(10):2017-24.
78. World Health Organization (2000). Regional Office for E. Air quality guidelines for Europe. 2nd ed. ed. Copenhagen. WHO. Regional Office for Europe.
2. Lamborg CH, Hammerschmidt CR, Bowman KL, et al (2014). A global ocean inventory of anthropogenic mercury based on water column measurements. Nature, 512(7512):65-8.
3. Bank MS(2012). Mercury in the Environment. University of California Press.
4. Higueras P, Fernández-Martínez R, Esbrí JM, et al(2015). Mercury soil pollution in Spain: a review. Environment, Energy and Climate Change, 135-58.
5. Zadnik V, Pompe-Kirn V(2007). Effects of 500-year mercury mining and milling on cancer incidence in the region of Idrija, Slovenia. Coll Antropol, 31(3):897-903.
6. Genchi G, Sinicropi MS, Carocci A, et al (2017). Mercury exposure and heart diseases. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 14(1):74.
7. Li Y, Zhao J, Li Y, Xu X, et al(2015). Studies on the environmental health effects and ecotoxicology of mercury by synchrotron radiation-based techniques. Scientia Sinica Chimica, 45(6):597-613.
8. Roth GA, Johnson C, Abajobir A, et al(2017). Global, regional, and national burden of cardiovascular diseases for 10 causes, 1990 to 2015. J Am Coll Cardiol, 70(1):1-25.
9. WHO(2007). Preventing disease through healthy environments: exposure to mercury: a major public health concern. World Health Organization.
10. Sinicropi MS, Caruso A, Capasso A, et al (2010). Heavy metals: Toxicity and carcinogenicity. Pharmacologyonline,2:329-33.
11. Carocci A, Catalano A, Lauria G, et al (2016). Lead toxicity, antioxidant defense, and environment. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol, 238:45-67.
12. Sinicropi MS, Amantea D, Caruso A, et al (2010). Chemical and biological properties of toxic metals and use of chelating agents for the pharmacological treatment of metal poisoning. Arch Toxicol, 84(7):501-20.
13. Bernhoft RA(2012). Mercury toxicity and treatment: a review of the literature. J Environ Public Health, 2012: 460508.
14. Driscoll CT, Mason RP, Chan HM, et al. (2013) Mercury as a global pollutant: sources, pathways, and effects. Environ Sci Technol, 47(10):4967-83.
15. Ballatori N, Clarkson TW(1985). Biliary secretion of glutathione and of glutathione-metal complexes. Fundam Appl Toxicol, 5(5):816-31.
16. Ullrich SM, Tanton TW, Abdrashitova SA (2001). Mercury in the aquatic environment: a review of factors affecting methylation. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 31(3):241-93.
17. Fitzgerald WF, Lamborg CH, Hammerschmidt CR (2007). Marine biogeochemical cycling of mercury. Chem Rev, 107(2):641-62.
18. Clarkson TW, Vyas JB, Ballatori N(2007). Mechanisms of mercury disposition in the body. Am J Ind Med, 50(10):757-64.
19. Compeau G, Bartha R(1985). Sulfate-reducing bacteria: principal methylators of mercury in anoxic estuarine sediment. Appl Environ Microbiol, 50(2):498-502.
20. Dargahi A, Rahimpouran S, Rad HM, et al(2023). Investigation of the link between the type and concentrations of heavy metals and other elements in blood and urinary stones and their association with environmental factors and dietary patterns. J Trace Elem Med Biol, 80:127270.
21. Clarkson TW, Magos L(2006). The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds. Crit Rev Toxicol, 36(8):609-62.
22. Pacyna EG, Pacyna J, Sundseth K, et al(2010). Global emission of mercury to the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources in 2005 and projections to 2020. Atmospheric Environment, 44(20):2487-99.
23. Futsaeter G, Wilson S, editors(2013). The UNEP global mercury assessment: sources, emissions and transport. E3S Web of Conferences, EDP Sciences.
24. Cohen MD, Draxler RR, Artz RS, et al(2016). Modeling the global atmospheric transport and deposition of mercury to the Great LakesGlobal atmospheric transport and deposition of mercury to the Great Lakes. Science of the Anthropocene, 4.
25. Pacyna JM, Travnikov O, De Simone F, et al(2016). Current and future levels of mercury atmospheric pollution on a global scale. Atmos Chem Phys, 16(19):12495-511.
26. Lindberg SE, Brooks S, Lin C-J, et al (2002). Dynamic oxidation of gaseous mercury in the Arctic troposphere at polar sunrise. Environ Sci Technol, 36(6):1245-56.
27. Mason R, Pirrone N, Hedgecock I, et al (2010). Conceptual overview. Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution 2010: Part B: Mercury. 1-26.
28. Selin NE, Jacob DJ, Park RJ, et al(2007). Chemical cycling and deposition of atmospheric mercury: Global constraints from observations. J Geophys Res,112(D02308).
29. Munthe J, Kindbom K, Pacyna J, et al(2010). Study on mercury sources and emissions, and analysis of cost and effectiveness of control measures-“UNEP Paragraph 29 study”. DTIE, Chemicals Branch, United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), 70pp.
30. Rafaj P, Cofala J, Kuenen J, et al (2014). Benefits of European climate policies for mercury air pollution. Atmosphere, 5(1):45-59.
31. Wilson S, Munthe J, Sundseth K, et al(2010). Updating Historical Global Inventories of Anthropogenic Mercury Emissions to Air. AMAP Technical Report No. 3 (2010). AMAP.
32. Pacyna JM, Sundseth K, Pacyna EG, et al(2010). An assessment of costs and benefits associated with mercury emission reductions from major anthropogenic sources. J Air Waste Manag Assoc, 60(3):302-15.
33. Wilson S, Kindbom K, Yaramenka K, et al (2012). Part A: global emissions of mercury to the atmosphere. In: Technical Background Report to the Global Mercury Assessment. UNEP/AMAP.
34. Driscoll CT, Mason RP, Chan HM, et al (2013). Mercury as a global pollutant: sources, pathways, and effects. Environ Sci Technol, 47(10):4967-83.
35. Lalonde JD, Amyot M, Doyon MR, et al (2003). Photo‐induced Hg (II) reduction in snow from the remote and temperate Experimental Lakes Area (Ontario, Canada). Journal of Geophysical Research (Atmospheres), 108(D6):4200.
36. O'Connor D, Hou D, Ok YS, et al (2019). Mercury speciation, transformation, and transportation in soils, atmospheric flux, and implications for risk management: A critical review. Environ Int, 126:747-61.
37. Neisi A, Farhadi M, Cheraghian B, et al (2024). Consumption of foods contaminated with heavy metals and their association with cardiovascular disease (CVD) using GAM software (cohort study). Heliyon, 10(2):e24517.
38. Tabandeh L, Khorramabadi GS, Karami A, et al (2016). Evaluation of heavy metal contamination and scaling and corrosion potential in drinking water resources in Nurabad city of Lorestan, Iran. International Journal of Pharmacy & Technology, 8:13137-54.
39. Sundseth K, Pacyna JM, Banel A, et al (2015). Climate change impacts on environmental and human exposure to mercury in the Arctic. Int J Environ Res Public Health,12(4):3579-99.
40. Chen L, Wang H, Liu J, et al(2014). Intercontinental transport and deposition patterns of atmospheric mercury from anthropogenic emissions. Atmos Chem Phys,14(18):10163-10176.
41. Pirrone N, Cinnirella S, Feng X, et al(2010). Global mercury emissions to the atmosphere from anthropogenic and natural sources. Atmos Chem Phys, 10(13):5951-64.
42. Cairns E, Tharumakulasingam K, Athar M, et al(2011). Source, concentration, and distribution of elemental mercury in the atmosphere in Toronto, Canada. Environ Pollut,159(8-9):2003-8.
43. Lee DS, Dollard GJ, Pepler S(1998). Gas-phase mercury in the atmosphere of the United Kingdom. Atmospheric Environment, 32(5):855-64.
44. Schiavo B, Morton-Bermea O, Salgado-Martínez E, et al (2022). Health risk assessment of gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) in Mexico City. Environ Monit Assess, 194(7):456.
45. Wang Z-w, Chen Z-s, Duan N, et al (2007). Gaseous elemental mercury concentration in atmosphere at urban and remote sites in China. J Environ Sci (China), 19(2):176-80.
46. Wang S, Feng X, Qiu G, et al (2005). Mercury emission to atmosphere from Lanmuchang Hg–Tl mining area, Southwestern Guizhou, China. Atmospheric Environment, 39(39):7459-73.
47. Ebinghaus R, Kock HH, Coggins AM, et al (2002). Long-term measurements of atmospheric mercury at Mace Head, Irish west coast, between 1995 and 2001. Atmospheric Environment, 36(34):5267-76.
48. Kock HH, Bieber E, Ebinghaus R, et al B(2005). Comparison of long-term trends and seasonal variations of atmospheric mercury concentrations at the two European coastal monitoring stations Mace Head, Ireland, and Zingst, Germany. Atmospheric Environment, 39(39):7549-56.
49. Korejwo E, Saniewska D, Bełdowska M (2020). Fractionation of mercury in aerosols of the southern Baltic coastal zone. Atmospheric Environment, 235:117623.
50. Wängberg I, Munthe J, Pirrone N, et al(2001). Atmospheric mercury distribution in Northern Europe and in the Mediterranean region. Atmospheric Environment, 35(17):3019-25.
51. Steffen A, Schroeder W, Bottenheim J, et al (2002). Atmospheric mercury concentrations: measurements and profiles near snow and ice surfaces in the Canadian Arctic during Alert 2000. Atmospheric Environment, 36(15):2653-61.
52. Fu X, Feng X, Zhu W, et al (2008). Total gaseous mercury concentrations in ambient air in the eastern slope of Mt. Gongga, South-Eastern fringe of the Tibetan plateau, China. Atmospheric Environment, 42(5):970-9.
53. Peate I(2020). The circulatory system. British Journal of Healthcare Assistants, 14(11):548-553.
54. Mendis S, Puska P, Norrving B, et al (2011). Global atlas on cardiovascular disease prevention and control. WHO.
55. Jackson CL, Redline S, Emmons KM(2015). Sleep as a potential fundamental contributor to cardiovascular health disparities. Annu Rev Public Health, 36:417-40.
56. Kelly BB, Fuster V. Promoting cardiovascular health in the developing world. a critical challenge to achieve global health. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2010.
57. Khlifi R, Hamza-Chaffai A(2010). Head and neck cancer due to heavy metal exposure via tobacco smoking and professional exposure: a review. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 248(2):71-88.
58. Flora S, Mittal M, Mehta A(2008). Heavy metal induced oxidative stress & its possible reversal by chelation therapy. Indian J Med Res, 128(4):501-23.
59. Jaishankar M, Tseten T, Anbalagan N, et al (2014). Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals. Interdiscip Toxicol, 7(2):60-72.
60. Rosamond W, Flegal K, Friday G, et al(2007). Heart disease and stroke statistics—2007 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation, 115(5):e69-171.
61. Organization WH(2004). Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease: Report of a WHO expert Consultation, Geneva, 29 October-1 November, 2001: WHO.
62. Control CfD, Prevention (2002). The burden of chronic diseases and their risk factors: national and state perspectives, CDC.
63. Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, et al (2006). Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data. Lancet, 367(9524):1747-57.
64. Kraemer HC, Stice E, Kazdin A, et al (2001). How do risk factors work together? Mediators, moderators, and independent, overlapping, and proxy risk factors. Am J Psychiatry, 158(6):848-56.
65. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME). Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Seattle, WA: IHME, 2018. https://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/policy_report/2019/GBD_2017_Booklet.pdf
66. Nepogodiev D, Martin J, Biccard B, et al(2019). Global burden of postoperative death. Lancet, 393(10170):401.
67. Zhao D, Liu J, Wang M, et al (2019). Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in China: current features and implications. Nat Rev Cardiol, 16(4):203-12.
68. Zhao D, Liu J, Wang W, et al (2008). Epidemiological transition of stroke in China: twenty-one–year observational study from the Sino-MONICA-Beijing Project. Stroke, 39(6):1668-74.
69. Farina M, Aschner M, Rocha JBT(2011). Oxidative stress in MeHg-induced neurotoxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 256(3):405-17.
70. Zalups RK(2000). Molecular Interactions with Mercury in the Kidney. Pharmacol Rev, 52(1):113-43.
71. Moris D, Spartalis M, Spartalis E, et al (2017). The role of reactive oxygen species in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases and the clinical significance of myocardial redox. Ann Transl Med, 5(16):326.
72. Kulka M (2016). A review of paraoxonase 1 properties and diagnostic applications. Pol J Vet Sci, 19(1):225-32.
73. Mallat Z, Lambeau G, Tedgui A(2010). Lipoprotein-associated and secreted phospholipases A₂ in cardiovascular disease: roles as biological effectors and biomarkers. Circulation,122(21):2183-200.
74. Houston MC (2014). The role of mercury in cardiovascular disease. J Cardiovasc Dis Diagn, 2:5.
75. Salonen JT, Seppänen K, Nyyssönen K, et al (1995). Intake of mercury from fish, lipid peroxidation, and the risk of myocardial infarction and coronary, cardiovascular, and any death in eastern Finnish men. Circulation, 91(3):645-55.
76. InSug O, Datar S, Koch CJ, et al (1997). Mercuric compounds inhibit human monocyte function by inducing apoptosis: evidence for formation of reactive oxygen species, development of mitochondrial membrane permeability transition and loss of reductive reserve.Toxicology, 124(3):211-24.
77. Lund B-O, Miller DM, Woods JS (1993). Studies on Hg(II)-induced H2O2 formation and oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro in rat kidney mitochondria. Biochem Pharmacol, 45(10):2017-24.
78. World Health Organization (2000). Regional Office for E. Air quality guidelines for Europe. 2nd ed. ed. Copenhagen. WHO. Regional Office for Europe.
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How to Cite
1.
Neisi A, Koshki Nasab F, Sepahvand A, Falahi B, Taherian M, Farhadi A, Asban P, Taleb Pour N, Farhadi M, Darghahi A. Exposure to Mercury in the Air and Its Effect on Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD). Iran J Public Health. 2024;53(5):1033-1046.
