Quantifying Health-Related Risk Factors Associated with Breast and Prostate Cancer Burden: The Role of Trends and Disparities in Obesity and Cholesterol
-
Syed Ghavam Shafagh
,
Mohammadreza Soltaninezhad
,
Parvaneh Dehghan
,
Maliheh Babahaji
,
Seyede Nahid Syedhasani
,
Mina Rezaei
,
Mohsen Poursadeghiyan
,
Milad Ahangarzadeh
,
Elham Karimi
,
Sajad Rahimi
Abstract
Background: We aimed to identify and quantify trends and disparities in the burden of breast and prostate cancer associated with health-related risk factors.
Method: Cancer outcomes data, such as age-standardized rate of incidence, prevalence, and mortality were retrieved by year and country. The sociodemographic index (SDI) and human development index (HDI) was extracted from Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2021 study and the Human Development Report. Univariate and linear regression analyses were uded to explore mean differences and correlation between cancer outcomes and independent variables.
Results: During their decades, there was an upward trend in age-standardized rate of incidence and prevalence for breast cancer (EAPC=0.15 and 0.09, respectively) and prostate cancer (EAPC=0.12 and 0.27, respectively), but a downward trend in age-standardized rate of mortality for breast (EAPC=−0.14) and prostate cancer (EAPC=−0.17). Over time, the prevalence of obesity and overweight increased by 54% and 34%, respectively. An upward trend in the non-HDL level was observed among middle-SDI (+3.76%), lower-middle-SDI (+6.92%), and low-SDI (+14.14%) countries, whereas the opposite trend was observed for high-middle-SDI (-10.12%) and high-SDI (-25.07%) regions. Multivariable regression revealed that the HDI was the main factors affecting cancer outcomes, especially for the prevalence (beta=0.73, P<0.001) and incidence of prostate cancer (beta=0.59, P<0.001).
Conclusion: Disparities in risk factors of cancer outcomes across different regions highlight the need for indispensable actions and policies on the implementation and evaluation of prevention programs among countries to address this problem.
1. Sung H, Ferlay J, Siegel RL, et al (2021). Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries. CA Cancer J Clin, 71(3):209-49.
2. Ferrari AJ, Santomauro DF, Aali A, et al(2024). Global incidence, prevalence, years lived with disability (YLDs), disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 371 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990-2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet, 403(10440):2133-61.
3. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A (2019). Cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin, 69(1):7-34.
4. Islami F, Goding Sauer A, Miller KD, et al(2018). Proportion and number of cancer cases and deaths attributable to potentially modifiable risk factors in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin, 68(1):31-54.
5. Malcomson FC, Parra-Soto S, Ho FK, et al (2023). Adherence to the 2018 World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF)/American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) Cancer Prevention Recommendations and risk of 14 lifestyle-related cancers in the UK Biobank prospective cohort study. BMC Med, 21(1):407.
6. Matta K, Viallon V, Botteri E, et al (2024). Healthy lifestyle change and all-cause and cancer mortality in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition cohort. BMC Med,22(1):210.
7. NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (2016). Trends in adult body-mass index in 200 countries from 1975 to 2014: a pooled analysis of 1698 population-based measurement studies with 19· 2 million participants. Lancet, 387(10026):1377-1396.
8. Tran KB, Lang JJ, Compton K, et al(2022). The global burden of cancer attributable to risk factors, 2010–19: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet, 400(10352):563-91.
9. Matta K, Viallon V, Botteri E, et al (2024). Healthy lifestyle change and all-cause and cancer mortality in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition cohort. BMC Med, 22(1):210.
10. Afshin A, Forouzanfar MH, Reitsma MB, et al (2017). Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity in 195 Countries over 25 Years. N Engl J Med, 377(1):13-27.
11. Moghaddam VK, Dickerson AS, Bazrafshan E, et al (2021). Socioeconomic determinants of global distribution of multiple sclerosis: an ecological investigation based on Global Burden of Disease data. BMC Neurol, 21(1):145.
12. Sharma R, Aashima, Nanda M, et al (2022). Mapping Cancer in Africa: A Comprehensive and Comparable Characterization of 34 Cancer Types Using Estimates From GLOBOCAN 2020. Front Public Health, 10:839835.
13. Young GJ, Harrison S, Turner EL, et al (2017). Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing of men in UK general practice: a 10-year longitudinal cohort study. BMJ Open, 7(10):e017729.
14. Wynder EL(1979). Dietary habits and cancer epidemiology. Cancer, 43(5 Suppl):1955-61.
15. Matsushita M, Fujita K, Nonomura N(2020). Influence of Diet and Nutrition on Prostate Cancer. Int J Mol Sci, 21(4):1447.
16. Shah SC, Kayamba V, Peek RM, Jr., Heimburger D (2019). Cancer Control in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Is It Time to Consider Screening? J Glob Oncol, 5:1-8.
17. Trapani D, Ginsburg O, Fadelu T,et al(2022). Global challenges and policy solutions in breast cancer control. Cancer Treat Rev, 104:102339.
18. Njuguna J (2023). The effect of a pilot universal health coverage program on hospital workload: A comparative study of two counties in Kenya. Dialogues Health, 2:100100.
19. Ellison-Barnes A, Johnson S, Gudzune K (2021). Trends in Obesity Prevalence Among Adults Aged 18 Through 25 Years, 1976-2018. JAMA, 326(20):2073-4.
20. Song N, Liu F, Han M, et al (2019). Prevalence of overweight and obesity and associated risk factors among adult residents of northwest China: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 9(9):e028131.
21. Courtemanche C, Tchernis R, Ukert B (2018). The effect of smoking on obesity: Evidence from a randomized trial. J Health Econ,57:31-44.
22. Kranjac AW, Kranjac D (2023). Explaining adult obesity, severe obesity, and BMI: Five decades of change. Heliyon, 9(5):e16210.
23. Fares AF, Li Y, Jiang M, et al (2023). Association between duration of smoking abstinence before non-small-cell lung cancer diagnosis and survival: a retrospective, pooled analysis of cohort studies. Lancet Public Health, 8(9):e691-e700.
24. De Nunzio C, Brassetti A, Cancrini F, et al (2023). Physical Inactivity, Metabolic Syndrome and Prostate Cancer Diagnosis: Development of a Predicting Nomogram. Metabolites, 13(1):111.
25. Guo W, Fensom GK, Reeves GK, Key TJ (2020). Physical activity and breast cancer risk: results from the UK Biobank prospective cohort. Br J Cancer, 122(5):726-32.
26. Touvier M, Fassier P, His M, et al(2015). Cholesterol and breast cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Br J Nutr, 114(3):347-57.
27. Li C, Yang L, Zhang D, Jiang W (2016). Systematic review and meta-analysis suggest that dietary cholesterol intake increases risk of breast cancer. Nutr Res, 36(7):627-35.
28. Malik VS, Willett WC, Hu FB (2013). Global obesity: trends, risk factors and policy implications. Nat Rev Endocrinol, 9(1):13-27.
29. Wu Y, Wang L, Zhu J, et al (2021). Growing fast food consumption and obesity in Asia: Challenges and implications. Soc Sci Med, 269:113601.
30. Li L, Sun N, Zhang L, et al (2020). Fast food consumption among young adolescents aged 12–15 years in 54 low- and middle-income countries. Glob Health Action, 13(1):1795438.
31. Sarmadi M, Ahmadi-Soleimani SM, Fararouei M, Dianatinasab M (2021). COVID-19, body mass index and cholesterol: an ecological study using global data. BMC Public Health, 21(1):1712.
32. Sarmadi M, Moghanddam VK, Dickerson AS, et al (2021). Association of COVID-19 distribution with air quality, sociodemographic factors, and comorbidities: an ecological study of US states. Air Qual Atmos Health, 14(4):455-65.
2. Ferrari AJ, Santomauro DF, Aali A, et al(2024). Global incidence, prevalence, years lived with disability (YLDs), disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 371 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990-2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet, 403(10440):2133-61.
3. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A (2019). Cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin, 69(1):7-34.
4. Islami F, Goding Sauer A, Miller KD, et al(2018). Proportion and number of cancer cases and deaths attributable to potentially modifiable risk factors in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin, 68(1):31-54.
5. Malcomson FC, Parra-Soto S, Ho FK, et al (2023). Adherence to the 2018 World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF)/American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) Cancer Prevention Recommendations and risk of 14 lifestyle-related cancers in the UK Biobank prospective cohort study. BMC Med, 21(1):407.
6. Matta K, Viallon V, Botteri E, et al (2024). Healthy lifestyle change and all-cause and cancer mortality in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition cohort. BMC Med,22(1):210.
7. NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (2016). Trends in adult body-mass index in 200 countries from 1975 to 2014: a pooled analysis of 1698 population-based measurement studies with 19· 2 million participants. Lancet, 387(10026):1377-1396.
8. Tran KB, Lang JJ, Compton K, et al(2022). The global burden of cancer attributable to risk factors, 2010–19: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet, 400(10352):563-91.
9. Matta K, Viallon V, Botteri E, et al (2024). Healthy lifestyle change and all-cause and cancer mortality in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition cohort. BMC Med, 22(1):210.
10. Afshin A, Forouzanfar MH, Reitsma MB, et al (2017). Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity in 195 Countries over 25 Years. N Engl J Med, 377(1):13-27.
11. Moghaddam VK, Dickerson AS, Bazrafshan E, et al (2021). Socioeconomic determinants of global distribution of multiple sclerosis: an ecological investigation based on Global Burden of Disease data. BMC Neurol, 21(1):145.
12. Sharma R, Aashima, Nanda M, et al (2022). Mapping Cancer in Africa: A Comprehensive and Comparable Characterization of 34 Cancer Types Using Estimates From GLOBOCAN 2020. Front Public Health, 10:839835.
13. Young GJ, Harrison S, Turner EL, et al (2017). Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing of men in UK general practice: a 10-year longitudinal cohort study. BMJ Open, 7(10):e017729.
14. Wynder EL(1979). Dietary habits and cancer epidemiology. Cancer, 43(5 Suppl):1955-61.
15. Matsushita M, Fujita K, Nonomura N(2020). Influence of Diet and Nutrition on Prostate Cancer. Int J Mol Sci, 21(4):1447.
16. Shah SC, Kayamba V, Peek RM, Jr., Heimburger D (2019). Cancer Control in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Is It Time to Consider Screening? J Glob Oncol, 5:1-8.
17. Trapani D, Ginsburg O, Fadelu T,et al(2022). Global challenges and policy solutions in breast cancer control. Cancer Treat Rev, 104:102339.
18. Njuguna J (2023). The effect of a pilot universal health coverage program on hospital workload: A comparative study of two counties in Kenya. Dialogues Health, 2:100100.
19. Ellison-Barnes A, Johnson S, Gudzune K (2021). Trends in Obesity Prevalence Among Adults Aged 18 Through 25 Years, 1976-2018. JAMA, 326(20):2073-4.
20. Song N, Liu F, Han M, et al (2019). Prevalence of overweight and obesity and associated risk factors among adult residents of northwest China: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 9(9):e028131.
21. Courtemanche C, Tchernis R, Ukert B (2018). The effect of smoking on obesity: Evidence from a randomized trial. J Health Econ,57:31-44.
22. Kranjac AW, Kranjac D (2023). Explaining adult obesity, severe obesity, and BMI: Five decades of change. Heliyon, 9(5):e16210.
23. Fares AF, Li Y, Jiang M, et al (2023). Association between duration of smoking abstinence before non-small-cell lung cancer diagnosis and survival: a retrospective, pooled analysis of cohort studies. Lancet Public Health, 8(9):e691-e700.
24. De Nunzio C, Brassetti A, Cancrini F, et al (2023). Physical Inactivity, Metabolic Syndrome and Prostate Cancer Diagnosis: Development of a Predicting Nomogram. Metabolites, 13(1):111.
25. Guo W, Fensom GK, Reeves GK, Key TJ (2020). Physical activity and breast cancer risk: results from the UK Biobank prospective cohort. Br J Cancer, 122(5):726-32.
26. Touvier M, Fassier P, His M, et al(2015). Cholesterol and breast cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Br J Nutr, 114(3):347-57.
27. Li C, Yang L, Zhang D, Jiang W (2016). Systematic review and meta-analysis suggest that dietary cholesterol intake increases risk of breast cancer. Nutr Res, 36(7):627-35.
28. Malik VS, Willett WC, Hu FB (2013). Global obesity: trends, risk factors and policy implications. Nat Rev Endocrinol, 9(1):13-27.
29. Wu Y, Wang L, Zhu J, et al (2021). Growing fast food consumption and obesity in Asia: Challenges and implications. Soc Sci Med, 269:113601.
30. Li L, Sun N, Zhang L, et al (2020). Fast food consumption among young adolescents aged 12–15 years in 54 low- and middle-income countries. Glob Health Action, 13(1):1795438.
31. Sarmadi M, Ahmadi-Soleimani SM, Fararouei M, Dianatinasab M (2021). COVID-19, body mass index and cholesterol: an ecological study using global data. BMC Public Health, 21(1):1712.
32. Sarmadi M, Moghanddam VK, Dickerson AS, et al (2021). Association of COVID-19 distribution with air quality, sociodemographic factors, and comorbidities: an ecological study of US states. Air Qual Atmos Health, 14(4):455-65.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 54 No 11 (2025) | |
| Section | Original Article(s) | |
| Keywords | ||
| Breast cancer Prostate cancer Cholesterol Obesity Global buden of disease | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Shafagh SG, Soltaninezhad M, Dehghan P, Babahaji M, Syedhasani SN, Rezaei M, Poursadeghiyan M, Ahangarzadeh M, Karimi E, Rahimi S. Quantifying Health-Related Risk Factors Associated with Breast and Prostate Cancer Burden: The Role of Trends and Disparities in Obesity and Cholesterol. Iran J Public Health. 2025;54(11):2500-2510.
