The Effect of Taekwondo on Depression: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
Background: Depression is a prevalent mental health disorder with adverse effects on both physical and psychological health. Taekwondo is posited to exert a positive influence on depression, yet its efficacy warrants further verification.
Methods: This study employed meta-analysis to quantify the intervention effect of Taekwondo on depression. Concurrently, based on subgroup analysis results, an optimal intervention program was suggested. Multiple databases were searched, including English (Web of Science, PubMed), Chinese (CNKI, WANFANG DATA), and Korean (RISS, KISS, DBPIA), to retrieve randomized controlled trials (RCTs) studying Taekwondo's impact on depression, published up to Jan 2024. The Cochrane bias risk tool version 2 (RoB 2.0) was utilized for literature bias risk assessment. Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software facilitated the meta-analysis, subgroup analysis, and publication bias evaluation.
Results: Fifteen articles, encompassing 1945 participants, were included in the study. The primary findings indicated a significant reduction in depression risk due to Taekwondo intervention (Effect Size [ES]=-0.635, P<0.001). Subgroup analysis revealed the most substantial intervention effects in elderly individuals (ES=-1.025, P=0.004) and women (ES=-1.114, P=0.009). Taekwondo exercises, when conducted over 12 wk (ES=-0.922, P<0.001), three times per week (ES=-0.729, P<0.001), for 60 min per session (ES=-0.980, P=0.003), and at low intensity (ES= -1.777, P=0.024), yielded the greatest depression mitigation effects.
Conclusion: Taekwondo is an effective means to alleviate depression, particularly in older women. The study recommends a low-intensity Taekwondo exercise regimen, consisting of 60-minute sessions, three times weekly for 12 wk, as an optimal exercise prescription for best outcomes.
1. Liu Q, He H, Yang J, et al (2020). Changes in the global burden of depression from 1990 to 2017: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease study. J Psychiatr Res, 126:134–140.
2. Sun W, Lu EY, Wang C, et al (2023). Neuro-biological mechanisms for the antide-pressant effects of mind-body and phys-ical exercises: A systematic review. Ment Health Phys Act, 25:100538.
3. Chesney E, Goodwin GM, Fazel S (2014). Risks of all-cause and suicide mortality in mental disorders: a meta-review. World Psychiatry, 13(2): 153–160.
4. WHO (2023). Depressive disorder (depres-sion). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression
5. Gordon BR, McDowell CP, Hallgren M, et al (2018). Association of Efficacy of Re-sistance Exercise Training With Depres-sive Symptoms: Meta-analysis and Meta-regression Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(6): 566–576.
6. Cooney GM, Dwan K, Greig CA, et al (2013). Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2013(9):CD004366.
7. Schuch FB, Vancampfort D, Richards J, et al (2016). Exercise as a treatment for de-pression: A meta-analysis adjusting for publication bias. J Psychiatr Res, 77:42–51.
8. Kim HB, John A Johnson, Eun-Jae Lee, et al (2018). In Martial Arts in Asia: An In-vestigation into the History of the Taekwondo Uniform since the Korean Peninsula’s Libera-tion from Japan. 1st Edition Routledge. London.
9. Kazemi M, Waalen J, Morgan C, et al (2006). A Profile Of Olympic Taekwondo Competitors. J Sports Sci Med, 5(CSSI):114-21.
10. Lim TH, Kim DH (2012). Change of Physi-cal Self-concept according to Taekwondo Discipline. J Korea Contents Assoc, 12(09): 408–421.
11. Baek S, Hong G, Min D, et al (2021). Ef-fects of Functional Fitness Enhance-ment through Taekwondo Training on Physical Characteristics and Risk Fac-tors of Dementia in Elderly Women with Depression. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 18(15): 7961.
12. Park I. 12 Weeks of Taekwondo Training for Women with Menopause: Effects on Mental Health and Depression [Master’s thesis]. Dong-A University; 2003.
13. Xu B. Study on the Influence of Taekwondo Training on Mental Health of Teenagers [Master’s thesis]. Jishou University; 2015.
14. Li Z. Taekwondo Training Product Poten-tial Influence on High School Students’ Physical and Mental Health Research [Master’s thesis]. Huaibei Normal Uni-versity; 2021.
15. Zhang X, Zhang H (2015). Study on the Ef-fect of the Different Teaching Methods of Taekwondo Lessons on Physical Health of University Students. Hubei Sports Sci, 34(09): 819–822.
16. Zhang Y, Xu X (2012). Experimental Study on Taekwondo Training Bettering Self-Control and Depression of University Students. J Xinxiang Teach Coll, 29(2): 175–178.
17. Borenstein M, Cooper H, Hedges L, et al (2009). The handbook of research syn-thesis and meta-analysis: Effect sizes for continuous data. 2nd ed. Russell Sage Foundation. New York.
18. Cohen J (1992). Statistical Power Analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(3): 98–101.
19. Han Z, Ju H (2023). Meta-analysis of the in-tervention effects of taekwondo on metabolic syndrome indicators. Front Physiol, 14:1069424.
20. Chen XH. Taekwondo on the Student’s Self-Esteem, Anxiety, and Depression [Master’s thesis]. Beijing Sport Universi-ty; 2016.
21. Jiang R (2007). On the Influences of Prac-ticing Taekwondo on the Pupils’ Quality of Psychology and Personality. Wushu Sci, (12): 93–94.
22. Lin Q, Ling K (2017). The Influence of Taekwondo’s Potential Cultivation on the Mental Health of College Students. J Harbin Inst Phys Educ, 35(5): 83–86.
23. Wang Q. Experimental Research on the Influence of Taekwondo Course Train-ing on Mental Health of Junior Middle School Students [Master’s thesis]. Shanxi University; 2020.
24. Zhang H. The Impact of Taekwondo on the Mental Health of Adolescents: A Case Study of Panzhihua City in Sichuan Province [Master’s thesis]. Chengdu Sport University; 2016.
25. Jeong M, Jung H (2020). Effects of Silver Taekwondo Program on Self-Reliance, Physical Fitness, Depressive Symptoms, and Diabetes Factors in Obese Elderly Women with Type 2 Diabetes. Korean J Sports Sci, 29(1): 859–870.
26. Kim B, Kim H (2014). The Effects of Taekwondo Training Program on Self-Esteem and Depression of the Elderly. J Coach Dev, 16(4): 47–59.
27. Kim G, Jeong M (2022). Effects of 24 Weeks Taekwondo Combined Program on Depression, Cognitive Function, and BDNF in Elderly Women. Korean J Sports Sci, 31(4): 867–877.
28. Nam Y. Effect of Taekwonrobic Health Promotion Program on Health and Life of the Elderly [Master’s thesis]. YongIn University; 2010.
29. Roh H, Cho S, So W (2018) Taekwondo Training Improves Mood and Sociabil-ity in Children from Multicultural Fami-lies in South Korea: A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 15(4): 757.
30. Ju H, Han Z, Gao Y (2023). A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Taekwondo on Physi-cal Self-Concept. Percept Mot Skills, 130(6): 2582–2602.
31. Correia ÉM, Monteiro D, Bento T, et al (2024). Analysis of the Effect of Differ-ent Physical Exercise Protocols on De-pression in Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Con-trolled Trials. Sports Health, 16(2): 285-294.
32. Liu X, Wang G, Cao Y (2022). Physical ex-ercise interventions for perinatal de-pression symptoms in women: A sys-tematic review and meta-analysis. Front Psychol, 13: 1022402.
33. Silveira H, Moraes H, Oliveira N, et al (2013). Physical Exercise and Clinically Depressed Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Neuropsychobiology, 67(2): 61–68.
34. Li Z, Liu S, Wang L, et al (2019). Mind–Body Exercise for Anxiety and Depres-sion in COPD Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 17(1): 22.
35. Zhang P, Li Z, Yang Q, et al (2021). Effects of Taijiquan and Qigong exercises on depression and anxiety levels in patients with substance use disorders: A systemat-ic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med Health Sci, 4(2): 85–94.
36. Kurian M, Caterino LC, Kulhavy RW (1993). Personality Characteristics and Duration of Ata Taekwondo Training. Percept Mot Skills, 76(2): 363–366.
37. Toskovic NN (2001). Alterations in Select-ed Measures of Mood with a Single Bout of Dynamic Taekwondo Exercise in College-Age Students. Percept Mot Skills, 92(3 Pt 2):1031-8.
38. Anderson C, Feldman D (2020). Hope and Physical Exercise: The Contributions of Hope, Self-Efficacy, and Optimism in Accounting for Variance in Exercise Frequency. Psychol Rep, 123(4): 1145–59.
39. Jin P (1992). Efficacy of Tai Chi, brisk walking, meditation, and reading in re-ducing mental and emotional stress. J Psychosom Res, 36(4): 361–70.
40. McAuley E, Blissmer B, Marquez DX, (2000). Social Relations, Physical Activi-ty, and Well-Being in Older Adults. Prev Med, 31(5): 608–17.
41. Basso JC, Suzuki WA (2017). The Effects of Acute Exercise on Mood, Cognition, Neurophysiology, and Neurochemical Pathways: A Review. Brain Plast, 2(2): 127–52.
42. Zhang J, Yen ST (2015). Physical Activity, Gender Difference, and Depressive Symptoms. Health Serv Res, 50(5): 1550–1573.
43. Angst J, Gamma A, Gastpar M, et al (2002). Gender differences in depression: Epi-demiological findings from the Europe-an DEPRES I and II studies. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 252:201–209.
44. Boggiano AK, Barrett M (1991). Gender differences in depression in college stu-dents. Sex Roles, 25:595–605.
45. Girgus JS, Yang K (2015). Gender and de-pression. Curr Opin Psychol, 4:53–60.
46. Toth EE, Ihász F, Ruíz-Barquín R, et al (2023). Physical Activity and Psychologi-cal Resilience in Older Adults: A Sys-tematic Review of the Literature. J Aging Phys Act, 32(2):276-286.
47. Yang J, Park E-C, Lee SA, et al (2018). The Association between Social Contacts and Depressive Symptoms among El-derly Koreans. Psychiatry Investig, 15(9): 861–868.
48. Wang X, Cai Z, Jiang W, et al (2022). Sys-tematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of exercise on depression in ad-olescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health, 16(1): 16.
49. Thomas AG, Dennis A, Rawlings NB, et al (2016). Multi-modal characterization of rapid anterior hippocampal volume in-crease associated with aerobic exercise. Neuroimage, 131:162–170.
50. Chen P, Wang D, Shen H, et al (2020). Phys-ical activity and health in Chinese chil-dren and adolescents: expert consensus statement (2020). Br J Sports Med, 54(22): 1321–1331.
51. World Health Organization (2022). Non-communicable diseases. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/noncommunicable-diseases
52. Roeh A, Kirchner SK, Malchow B, et al (2019). Depression in Somatic Disor-ders: Is There a Beneficial Effect of Ex-ercise? Front Psychiatry, 10:141.
53. Shiota N, Narikiyo K, Masuda A, et al (2016). Water spray-induced grooming is negatively correlated with depressive behavior in the forced swimming test in rats. J Physiol Sci, 66:265–273.
54. Carneiro L, Afonso J, Ramirez-Campillo R, et al (2020). The Effects of Exclusively Resistance Training-Based Supervised Programs in People with Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Int J En-viron Res Public Health, 17(18): 6715.
55. Morikawa R, Kubota N, Amemiya S, et al (2021). Interaction between intensity and duration of acute exercise on neuronal activity associated with depression-related behavior in rats. J Physiol Sci, 71(1):1.
56. Pojednic RM, Polak R, Arnstein F, et al (2017). Practice patterns, counseling and promotion of physical activity by sports medicine physicians. J Sci Med Sport, 20(2): 123–127.
57. Meyer JD, Koltyn KF, Stegner AJ, et al (2016). Influence of Exercise Intensity for Improving Depressed Mood in De-pression: A Dose-Response Study. Behav Ther, 47(4): 527–537.
2. Sun W, Lu EY, Wang C, et al (2023). Neuro-biological mechanisms for the antide-pressant effects of mind-body and phys-ical exercises: A systematic review. Ment Health Phys Act, 25:100538.
3. Chesney E, Goodwin GM, Fazel S (2014). Risks of all-cause and suicide mortality in mental disorders: a meta-review. World Psychiatry, 13(2): 153–160.
4. WHO (2023). Depressive disorder (depres-sion). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression
5. Gordon BR, McDowell CP, Hallgren M, et al (2018). Association of Efficacy of Re-sistance Exercise Training With Depres-sive Symptoms: Meta-analysis and Meta-regression Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(6): 566–576.
6. Cooney GM, Dwan K, Greig CA, et al (2013). Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2013(9):CD004366.
7. Schuch FB, Vancampfort D, Richards J, et al (2016). Exercise as a treatment for de-pression: A meta-analysis adjusting for publication bias. J Psychiatr Res, 77:42–51.
8. Kim HB, John A Johnson, Eun-Jae Lee, et al (2018). In Martial Arts in Asia: An In-vestigation into the History of the Taekwondo Uniform since the Korean Peninsula’s Libera-tion from Japan. 1st Edition Routledge. London.
9. Kazemi M, Waalen J, Morgan C, et al (2006). A Profile Of Olympic Taekwondo Competitors. J Sports Sci Med, 5(CSSI):114-21.
10. Lim TH, Kim DH (2012). Change of Physi-cal Self-concept according to Taekwondo Discipline. J Korea Contents Assoc, 12(09): 408–421.
11. Baek S, Hong G, Min D, et al (2021). Ef-fects of Functional Fitness Enhance-ment through Taekwondo Training on Physical Characteristics and Risk Fac-tors of Dementia in Elderly Women with Depression. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 18(15): 7961.
12. Park I. 12 Weeks of Taekwondo Training for Women with Menopause: Effects on Mental Health and Depression [Master’s thesis]. Dong-A University; 2003.
13. Xu B. Study on the Influence of Taekwondo Training on Mental Health of Teenagers [Master’s thesis]. Jishou University; 2015.
14. Li Z. Taekwondo Training Product Poten-tial Influence on High School Students’ Physical and Mental Health Research [Master’s thesis]. Huaibei Normal Uni-versity; 2021.
15. Zhang X, Zhang H (2015). Study on the Ef-fect of the Different Teaching Methods of Taekwondo Lessons on Physical Health of University Students. Hubei Sports Sci, 34(09): 819–822.
16. Zhang Y, Xu X (2012). Experimental Study on Taekwondo Training Bettering Self-Control and Depression of University Students. J Xinxiang Teach Coll, 29(2): 175–178.
17. Borenstein M, Cooper H, Hedges L, et al (2009). The handbook of research syn-thesis and meta-analysis: Effect sizes for continuous data. 2nd ed. Russell Sage Foundation. New York.
18. Cohen J (1992). Statistical Power Analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(3): 98–101.
19. Han Z, Ju H (2023). Meta-analysis of the in-tervention effects of taekwondo on metabolic syndrome indicators. Front Physiol, 14:1069424.
20. Chen XH. Taekwondo on the Student’s Self-Esteem, Anxiety, and Depression [Master’s thesis]. Beijing Sport Universi-ty; 2016.
21. Jiang R (2007). On the Influences of Prac-ticing Taekwondo on the Pupils’ Quality of Psychology and Personality. Wushu Sci, (12): 93–94.
22. Lin Q, Ling K (2017). The Influence of Taekwondo’s Potential Cultivation on the Mental Health of College Students. J Harbin Inst Phys Educ, 35(5): 83–86.
23. Wang Q. Experimental Research on the Influence of Taekwondo Course Train-ing on Mental Health of Junior Middle School Students [Master’s thesis]. Shanxi University; 2020.
24. Zhang H. The Impact of Taekwondo on the Mental Health of Adolescents: A Case Study of Panzhihua City in Sichuan Province [Master’s thesis]. Chengdu Sport University; 2016.
25. Jeong M, Jung H (2020). Effects of Silver Taekwondo Program on Self-Reliance, Physical Fitness, Depressive Symptoms, and Diabetes Factors in Obese Elderly Women with Type 2 Diabetes. Korean J Sports Sci, 29(1): 859–870.
26. Kim B, Kim H (2014). The Effects of Taekwondo Training Program on Self-Esteem and Depression of the Elderly. J Coach Dev, 16(4): 47–59.
27. Kim G, Jeong M (2022). Effects of 24 Weeks Taekwondo Combined Program on Depression, Cognitive Function, and BDNF in Elderly Women. Korean J Sports Sci, 31(4): 867–877.
28. Nam Y. Effect of Taekwonrobic Health Promotion Program on Health and Life of the Elderly [Master’s thesis]. YongIn University; 2010.
29. Roh H, Cho S, So W (2018) Taekwondo Training Improves Mood and Sociabil-ity in Children from Multicultural Fami-lies in South Korea: A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 15(4): 757.
30. Ju H, Han Z, Gao Y (2023). A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Taekwondo on Physi-cal Self-Concept. Percept Mot Skills, 130(6): 2582–2602.
31. Correia ÉM, Monteiro D, Bento T, et al (2024). Analysis of the Effect of Differ-ent Physical Exercise Protocols on De-pression in Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Con-trolled Trials. Sports Health, 16(2): 285-294.
32. Liu X, Wang G, Cao Y (2022). Physical ex-ercise interventions for perinatal de-pression symptoms in women: A sys-tematic review and meta-analysis. Front Psychol, 13: 1022402.
33. Silveira H, Moraes H, Oliveira N, et al (2013). Physical Exercise and Clinically Depressed Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Neuropsychobiology, 67(2): 61–68.
34. Li Z, Liu S, Wang L, et al (2019). Mind–Body Exercise for Anxiety and Depres-sion in COPD Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 17(1): 22.
35. Zhang P, Li Z, Yang Q, et al (2021). Effects of Taijiquan and Qigong exercises on depression and anxiety levels in patients with substance use disorders: A systemat-ic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med Health Sci, 4(2): 85–94.
36. Kurian M, Caterino LC, Kulhavy RW (1993). Personality Characteristics and Duration of Ata Taekwondo Training. Percept Mot Skills, 76(2): 363–366.
37. Toskovic NN (2001). Alterations in Select-ed Measures of Mood with a Single Bout of Dynamic Taekwondo Exercise in College-Age Students. Percept Mot Skills, 92(3 Pt 2):1031-8.
38. Anderson C, Feldman D (2020). Hope and Physical Exercise: The Contributions of Hope, Self-Efficacy, and Optimism in Accounting for Variance in Exercise Frequency. Psychol Rep, 123(4): 1145–59.
39. Jin P (1992). Efficacy of Tai Chi, brisk walking, meditation, and reading in re-ducing mental and emotional stress. J Psychosom Res, 36(4): 361–70.
40. McAuley E, Blissmer B, Marquez DX, (2000). Social Relations, Physical Activi-ty, and Well-Being in Older Adults. Prev Med, 31(5): 608–17.
41. Basso JC, Suzuki WA (2017). The Effects of Acute Exercise on Mood, Cognition, Neurophysiology, and Neurochemical Pathways: A Review. Brain Plast, 2(2): 127–52.
42. Zhang J, Yen ST (2015). Physical Activity, Gender Difference, and Depressive Symptoms. Health Serv Res, 50(5): 1550–1573.
43. Angst J, Gamma A, Gastpar M, et al (2002). Gender differences in depression: Epi-demiological findings from the Europe-an DEPRES I and II studies. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 252:201–209.
44. Boggiano AK, Barrett M (1991). Gender differences in depression in college stu-dents. Sex Roles, 25:595–605.
45. Girgus JS, Yang K (2015). Gender and de-pression. Curr Opin Psychol, 4:53–60.
46. Toth EE, Ihász F, Ruíz-Barquín R, et al (2023). Physical Activity and Psychologi-cal Resilience in Older Adults: A Sys-tematic Review of the Literature. J Aging Phys Act, 32(2):276-286.
47. Yang J, Park E-C, Lee SA, et al (2018). The Association between Social Contacts and Depressive Symptoms among El-derly Koreans. Psychiatry Investig, 15(9): 861–868.
48. Wang X, Cai Z, Jiang W, et al (2022). Sys-tematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of exercise on depression in ad-olescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health, 16(1): 16.
49. Thomas AG, Dennis A, Rawlings NB, et al (2016). Multi-modal characterization of rapid anterior hippocampal volume in-crease associated with aerobic exercise. Neuroimage, 131:162–170.
50. Chen P, Wang D, Shen H, et al (2020). Phys-ical activity and health in Chinese chil-dren and adolescents: expert consensus statement (2020). Br J Sports Med, 54(22): 1321–1331.
51. World Health Organization (2022). Non-communicable diseases. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/noncommunicable-diseases
52. Roeh A, Kirchner SK, Malchow B, et al (2019). Depression in Somatic Disor-ders: Is There a Beneficial Effect of Ex-ercise? Front Psychiatry, 10:141.
53. Shiota N, Narikiyo K, Masuda A, et al (2016). Water spray-induced grooming is negatively correlated with depressive behavior in the forced swimming test in rats. J Physiol Sci, 66:265–273.
54. Carneiro L, Afonso J, Ramirez-Campillo R, et al (2020). The Effects of Exclusively Resistance Training-Based Supervised Programs in People with Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Int J En-viron Res Public Health, 17(18): 6715.
55. Morikawa R, Kubota N, Amemiya S, et al (2021). Interaction between intensity and duration of acute exercise on neuronal activity associated with depression-related behavior in rats. J Physiol Sci, 71(1):1.
56. Pojednic RM, Polak R, Arnstein F, et al (2017). Practice patterns, counseling and promotion of physical activity by sports medicine physicians. J Sci Med Sport, 20(2): 123–127.
57. Meyer JD, Koltyn KF, Stegner AJ, et al (2016). Influence of Exercise Intensity for Improving Depressed Mood in De-pression: A Dose-Response Study. Behav Ther, 47(4): 527–537.
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| Issue | Vol 54 No 2 (2025) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijph.v54i2.17897 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Taekwondo Depression Meta-analysis Intervention protocol | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Gao Y, Han Z, Dai B. The Effect of Taekwondo on Depression: A Meta-Analysis. Iran J Public Health. 2025;54(2):252-264.
