Prevalence of Domestic Violence against Women and Its Visibility in Southeast Iran
-
Milad Ahmadi Gohari
,
Mohammad Reza Baneshi
,
Farzaneh Zolala
,
Behshid Garrusi
,
Elahe Salarpour
,
Mohammad Samary
Abstract
Background: We aimed to estimate the prevalence of domestic violence against women at Reproductive Age (WARA) and its visibility in southeast of Iran.
Methods: Adopting a modified time-location sampling, we recruited 933 WARA in the city of Kerman, Iran from Aug to Dec 2019. Domestic violence (DV) was divided into three main categories: Physical, psychological, and sexual. Data were obtained by direct and Network Scale-Up (NSU) methods through self–administered questionnaires. Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) was used to determine the association between socio-economic variables and the violence experience. Visibility was defined as the ratio of NSU over direct estimates.
Results: Using the direct method, the annual prevalence of psychological violence was estimated at 60.9%. Corresponding figures for physical and sexual violence were 34.7% and 37.7%, respectively. NSU estimates were about one-third of the direct estimates. Divorced and widowed, self-employed, and less educated women were more likely to experience DV.
Conclusion: While the average DV was as high as 44%, its visibility was as low as 33%. Nearly two-thirds of domestic violence against women remains undisclosed. This indicates a high level of stigma perceived around this type of violence.
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12. Agenagnew L, Tebeje B, Tilahun R (2020). Disclosure of intimate partner violence and associated factors among victimized women, Ethiopia, 2018: a community-based study. Int J Reprod Med, 2020: 6513246.
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16. Zamanian M, Zolala F, Haghdoost AA, Baneshi MR (2019). Estimating The Annual Abortion Rate in Kerman, Iran: Comparison of Direct, Network Scale-Up, and Single Sample Count Methods. Int J Fertil Steril, 13(3):209-214.
17. Ahmadi-Gohari M, Zolala F, Iranpour A, Baneshi MR (2019). Twelve-hour before Driving Prevalence of Alcohol and Drug Use among Heavy Vehicle Drivers in South East of Iran Using Network Scale Up. Addict Health, 11(4):256-261.
18. Harne L, Radford J (2008). Tackling domestic violence: theories, policies and practice: theories, policies and practice. ed. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
19. Zamanian M, Baneshi MR, Haghdoost AA, et al (2016). Estimating the Size and Age-gender Distribution of Women's Active Social Networks. Addict Health, 8(3):170-178.
20. Haghdoost A, Gohari MA, Mirzazadeh A, et al (2018). A review of methods to estimate the visibility factor for bias correction in network scale-up studies. Epidemiol Health, 40:e2018041.
21. Tanriverdi G, Çapik C, Gürsoy MY (2018). Prevalence of Domestic Violence Against MarriedWomen in Turkey and Associated Risk Factors. Turk Klin J Med, 38(3):218-229. doi: 10.5336/medsci.2017-58822.
22. Ahmad J, Khan N, Mozumdar A (2021). Spousal Violence Against Women in India: A Social–Ecological Analysis Using Data From the National Family Health Survey 2015 to 2016. J Interpers Violence, 36(21-22):10147-10181.
23. Ali TS, Asad N, Mogren I, Krantz G (2011). Intimate partner violence in urban Pakistan: prevalence, frequency, and risk factors. Int J Womens Health, 3:105-115.
24. Al-Atrushi HH, Al-Tawil NG, Shabila NP, Al-Hadithi TS (2013). Intimate partner violence against women in the Erbil city of the Kurdistan region, Iraq. BMC Womens Health, 13:37.
25. Bent-Goodley TB (2005). Culture and domestic violence: Transforming knowledge development. J Interpers Violence, 20(2):195-203.
26. Saffari M, Arslan SA, Yekaninejad MS, et al (2017). Factors associated with domestic violence against women in Iran: An exploratory multicenter community-based study. J Interpers Violence, 886260517713224.
27. Douki S, Nacef F, Belhadj A, Bouasker A, Ghachem R (2003). Violence against women in Arab and Islamic countries. Arch Womens Ment Health, 6(3):165-171.
28. Cardinali P, Migliorini L, Giribone F, Bizzi F, Cavanna D (2018). Domestic Violence in Separated Couples in Italian Context: Communalities and Singularities of Women and Men Experiences. Front Psychol, 9:1602.
29. Sen S, Bolsoy N (2017). Violence against women: prevalence and risk factors in Turkish sample. BMC Womens Health, 17:100.
30. Tiruye TY, Harris ML, Chojenta C, et al (2020). Determinants of intimate partner violence against women in Ethiopia: A multi-level analysis. PLoS One, 15(4):e0232217.
31. Krishnan S, Rocca CH, Hubbard AE, et al (2010). Do changes in spousal employment status lead to domestic violence? Insights from a prospective study in Bangalore, India. Soc Sci Med, 70(1):136-143.
32. Women UN (2019). Handbook: addressing violence and harassment against women in the world of work.17-19. https://www.unwomen.org/
33. Rasoulian M, Habib S, Bolhari J, et al (2014). Risk factors of domestic violence in Iran. J Environ Public Health, 2014: 352346.
2. Krantz G (2002). Violence against women: a global public health issue. J Epidemiol Community Health, 56(4): 242–243.
3. Flury M, Nyberg E, Riecher-Rössler A (2010). Domestic violence against women: definitions, epidemiology, risk factors and consequences. Swiss Med Wkly, 140:w13099.
4. Wali R, Khalil A, Alattas R, Foudah R, Meftah I, Sarhan S (2020). Prevalence and risk factors of domestic violence in women attending the National Guard Primary Health Care Centers in the Western Region, Saudi Arabia, 2018. BMC Public Health, 20(1):239.
5. WHO (2012). Understanding and addressing violence against women, Intimate partner violence. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/77432
6. Control. NCfIPa Preventing Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence: Program Activities Guide. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/ipv-sv_program_activities_guide-a.pdf
7. Rasoulian M, Jalali AH, et al (2017). Risk Factors of Domestic Violence in Iran. Iran J Psychiatry Behav Sci, 11(1):e4280.
8. Heise L, Ellsberg M, Gottmoeller M (2002). A global overview of gender-based violence. Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 78 Suppl 1:S5-14.
9. Bott S, Guedes A, Ruiz-Celis AP, Mendoza JA (2019). Intimate partner violence in the Americas: a systematic review and reanalysis of national prevalence estimates. Rev Panam Salud Publica, 43:e26.
10. Jewkes R, Fulu E, Tabassam Naved R, et al (2017). Women's and men's reports of past-year prevalence of intimate partner violence and rape and women's risk factors for intimate partner violence: A multicountry cross-sectional study in Asia and the Pacific. PLoS Med, 14(9):e1002381.
11. Hajnasiri H, Gheshlagh RG, Sayehmiri K, et al (2016). Domestic violence among Iranian women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Iran Red Crescent Med J, 18(6): e34971.
12. Agenagnew L, Tebeje B, Tilahun R (2020). Disclosure of intimate partner violence and associated factors among victimized women, Ethiopia, 2018: a community-based study. Int J Reprod Med, 2020: 6513246.
13. Naghavi A, Amani S, Bagheri M, De Mol (2019). A critical analysis of intimate partner sexual violence in Iran. Front Psychol, 10:2729.
14. Taherkhani S, Negarandeh R, Simbar M, Ahmadi F (2017). Barriers to seeking help among abused Iranian women. Journal of Adult Protection, 19(5):261-273.
15. Ezoe S, Morooka T, Noda T, Sabin ML, Koike S (2012). Population size estimation of men who have sex with men through the network scale-up method in Japan. PLoS One, 7(1):e31184.
16. Zamanian M, Zolala F, Haghdoost AA, Baneshi MR (2019). Estimating The Annual Abortion Rate in Kerman, Iran: Comparison of Direct, Network Scale-Up, and Single Sample Count Methods. Int J Fertil Steril, 13(3):209-214.
17. Ahmadi-Gohari M, Zolala F, Iranpour A, Baneshi MR (2019). Twelve-hour before Driving Prevalence of Alcohol and Drug Use among Heavy Vehicle Drivers in South East of Iran Using Network Scale Up. Addict Health, 11(4):256-261.
18. Harne L, Radford J (2008). Tackling domestic violence: theories, policies and practice: theories, policies and practice. ed. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
19. Zamanian M, Baneshi MR, Haghdoost AA, et al (2016). Estimating the Size and Age-gender Distribution of Women's Active Social Networks. Addict Health, 8(3):170-178.
20. Haghdoost A, Gohari MA, Mirzazadeh A, et al (2018). A review of methods to estimate the visibility factor for bias correction in network scale-up studies. Epidemiol Health, 40:e2018041.
21. Tanriverdi G, Çapik C, Gürsoy MY (2018). Prevalence of Domestic Violence Against MarriedWomen in Turkey and Associated Risk Factors. Turk Klin J Med, 38(3):218-229. doi: 10.5336/medsci.2017-58822.
22. Ahmad J, Khan N, Mozumdar A (2021). Spousal Violence Against Women in India: A Social–Ecological Analysis Using Data From the National Family Health Survey 2015 to 2016. J Interpers Violence, 36(21-22):10147-10181.
23. Ali TS, Asad N, Mogren I, Krantz G (2011). Intimate partner violence in urban Pakistan: prevalence, frequency, and risk factors. Int J Womens Health, 3:105-115.
24. Al-Atrushi HH, Al-Tawil NG, Shabila NP, Al-Hadithi TS (2013). Intimate partner violence against women in the Erbil city of the Kurdistan region, Iraq. BMC Womens Health, 13:37.
25. Bent-Goodley TB (2005). Culture and domestic violence: Transforming knowledge development. J Interpers Violence, 20(2):195-203.
26. Saffari M, Arslan SA, Yekaninejad MS, et al (2017). Factors associated with domestic violence against women in Iran: An exploratory multicenter community-based study. J Interpers Violence, 886260517713224.
27. Douki S, Nacef F, Belhadj A, Bouasker A, Ghachem R (2003). Violence against women in Arab and Islamic countries. Arch Womens Ment Health, 6(3):165-171.
28. Cardinali P, Migliorini L, Giribone F, Bizzi F, Cavanna D (2018). Domestic Violence in Separated Couples in Italian Context: Communalities and Singularities of Women and Men Experiences. Front Psychol, 9:1602.
29. Sen S, Bolsoy N (2017). Violence against women: prevalence and risk factors in Turkish sample. BMC Womens Health, 17:100.
30. Tiruye TY, Harris ML, Chojenta C, et al (2020). Determinants of intimate partner violence against women in Ethiopia: A multi-level analysis. PLoS One, 15(4):e0232217.
31. Krishnan S, Rocca CH, Hubbard AE, et al (2010). Do changes in spousal employment status lead to domestic violence? Insights from a prospective study in Bangalore, India. Soc Sci Med, 70(1):136-143.
32. Women UN (2019). Handbook: addressing violence and harassment against women in the world of work.17-19. https://www.unwomen.org/
33. Rasoulian M, Habib S, Bolhari J, et al (2014). Risk factors of domestic violence in Iran. J Environ Public Health, 2014: 352346.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 52 No 3 (2023) | |
| Section | Original Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijph.v52i3.12147 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Domestic violence Women Iran | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Ahmadi Gohari M, Baneshi MR, Zolala F, Garrusi B, Salarpour E, Samary M. Prevalence of Domestic Violence against Women and Its Visibility in Southeast Iran. Iran J Public Health. 2023;52(3):646-654.
