Mechanisms in Which Smoking Increases the Risk of COVID-19 Infection: A Narrative Review
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Abstract
At present, COVID-19 continues to spread around the world. People are generally susceptible to SARS-CoV-2. The elderly, serious chronic underlying diseases, high-risk pregnancy, severe obesity and other factors are related to the progression of COVID-19 to severe, critical illness, and even death caused by deterioration of the disease. The relationship between smoking and COVID-19 seems to be controversial. The smoking rate of hospitalized COVID-19 patients is significantly lower than that of the general population. Therefore, smoking can reduce COVID-19 infection and protect the respiratory tract. Subsequently, many scholars have carried out research on this, thinking that this is a wrong and misleading conclusion. According to WHO, smoking is significantly related to the severity of COVID-19, which is one of the important risk factors for the deterioration and poor prognosis of COVID-19. This article reviews the mechanism of smoking increasing the risk of COVID-19 infection.
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4. Sardu C, Gambardella J, Morelli MB, et al (2020). Hypertension, Thrombosis, Kidney Failure, and Diabetes: Is COVID-19 an Endothelial Disease? A Comprehensive Evaluation of Clinical and Basic Evidence. J Clin Med, 9(5):1417.
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7. Farsalinos K, Barbouni A, Niaura R (2020). Systematic review of the prevalence of current smoking among hospitalized COVID-19 patients in China: could nicotine be a therapeutic option? Intern Emerg Med, 15 (5): 845-852.
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12. Patanavanichand R, Glantz SA (2020). Smoking is associated with COVID-19 Progression: A Meta-Analysis. Nicotine Tob Res, 22 (9): 1653-1656.
13. Zhao Q, Meng M, Kumar R, et al (2020). The impact of COPD and smoking history on the severity of COVID-19: A systemic review and meta-analysis. J Med Virol, 92 (10): 1915-1921.
14. Eapen MS, Sharma P, Moodley YP, et al (2019). Dysfunctional Immunity and Microbial Adhesion Molecules in Smoking-induced Pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 199 (2): 250-251.
15. Park JE, Jung S, Kim A, et al (2018). MERS transmission and risk factors: a systematic review. BMC Public Health, 18 (1): 574.
16. Cattaruzza MS, Zagà V, Gallus S, et al (2020). Tobacco smoking and COVID-19 pandemic: old and new issues. A summary of the evidence from the scientific literature. Acta Biomed, 91 (2): 106-112.
17. Guo FR (2020). Active smoking is associated with severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19 ): An update of a meta-analysis. Tob Induc Dis, 18: 37.
18. Lo E, Lasnier B (2020). Active smoking and severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): The use of significance testing leads to an erroneous conclusion. Eur J Intern Med, 77: 125-126.
19. Carmona-Bayonas A, Jimenez-Fonseca P, Sanchez Arraez A, et al (2020). Does active smoking worsen Covid-19? Eur J Intern Med, 77: 129-131.
20. Gallus S, Lugo A, Gorini (2020). No double-edged sword and no doubt about the relation between smoking and COVID-19 severity. Eur J Intern Med, 77: 33-35.
21. Matricardi PM, Negro RWD, Nisini R (2020). The first, holistic immunological model of COVID-19: Implications for prevention, diagnosis, and public health measures. Pediatr Allergy Immunol, 31 (5): 454-470.
22. Aghapour M, Raee P, Moghaddam SJ, et al (2018). Airway Epithelial Barrier Dysfunction in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Role of Cigarette Smoke Exposure. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 58 (2): 157-169.
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24. Brake SJ, Barnsley K, Lu W, et al (2020). Smoking Upregulates Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme-2 Receptor: A Potential Adhesion Site for Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (Covid-19). J Clin Med, 9(3):841.
25. Sungnak W, Huang N, Becavin, et al (2020). SARS-CoV-2 entry factors are highly expressed in nasal epithelial cells together with innate immune genes. Nat Med, 26 (5): 681-687.
26. Leung JM, Yang CX, Tam A, et al (2020). ACE-2 expression in the small airway epithelia of smokers and COPD patients: implications for COVID-19. Eur Respir J, 55(5):2000688.
27. Smith JC, Sausville EL, Girish V, et al (2020). Cigarette Smoke Exposure and Inflammatory Signaling Increase the Expression of the SARS-CoV-2 Receptor ACE2 in the Respiratory Tract. Developmental Cell, 53 (5): 514-529.
28. Dittmann M, Hoffmann HH, Scull MA, et al (2015). A serpin shapes the extracellular environment to prevent influenza A virus maturation. Cell, 160 (4): 631-643.
29. Jean F, Stella K, Liu G, et al (1998). alpha1-Antitrypsin Portland, a bioengineered serpin highly selective for furin: application as an antipathogenic agent. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 95 (13): 7293-8.
30. Nguyen HM, Torres JA, Agrawal, et al (2020). Nicotine Impairs the Response of Lung Epithelial Cells to IL-22. Mediators Inflamm, 2020: 6705428.
31. Li X, Geng M, Meng L, et al (2020). Molecular immune pathogenesis and diagnosis of COVID-19. J Pharm Anal, 10 (2): 102-108.
32. Barnes BJ, Adrover JM, Baxter-Stoltzfus A (2020). Targeting potential drivers of COVID-19: Neutrophil extracellular traps. J Exp Med, 217(6):e20200652.
2. Baloch S , Baloch MA, Zheng T, et al (2020). The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic. Tohoku J Exp Med, 250 (4): 271-278.
3. Wu C, Chen X,Cai Y, et al (2020). Risk Factors Associated With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Death in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Intern Med, 180 (7): 934-943.
4. Sardu C, Gambardella J, Morelli MB, et al (2020). Hypertension, Thrombosis, Kidney Failure, and Diabetes: Is COVID-19 an Endothelial Disease? A Comprehensive Evaluation of Clinical and Basic Evidence. J Clin Med, 9(5):1417.
5. Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, et al (2020). Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med, 382 (18): 1708-1720.
6. Guan WJ, Liang WH,Zhao Y, et al (2020). Comorbidity and its impact on 1590 patients with COVID-19 in China: a nationwide analysis. Eur Respir J, 55(5):2000547.
7. Farsalinos K, Barbouni A, Niaura R (2020). Systematic review of the prevalence of current smoking among hospitalized COVID-19 patients in China: could nicotine be a therapeutic option? Intern Emerg Med, 15 (5): 845-852.
8. Chow N, Dutra KF (2020). Preliminary Estimates of the Prevalence of Selected Underlying Health Conditions Among Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 - United States, February 12-March 28, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 69 (13): 382-386.
9. Creamer MR, Wang TW, Willis G (2019). Tobacco Product Use and Cessation Indicators among Adults - United States, 2018. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), 68 (45): 1013-1019.
10. Lippi G, Gomar FS, Henry BM (2020). Active smoking and COVID-19: a double-edged sword. Eur J Intern Med, 77: 123-124.
11. Lippiand G, Henry BM (2020). Active smoking is not associated with severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Eur J Intern Med, 75: 107-108.
12. Patanavanichand R, Glantz SA (2020). Smoking is associated with COVID-19 Progression: A Meta-Analysis. Nicotine Tob Res, 22 (9): 1653-1656.
13. Zhao Q, Meng M, Kumar R, et al (2020). The impact of COPD and smoking history on the severity of COVID-19: A systemic review and meta-analysis. J Med Virol, 92 (10): 1915-1921.
14. Eapen MS, Sharma P, Moodley YP, et al (2019). Dysfunctional Immunity and Microbial Adhesion Molecules in Smoking-induced Pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 199 (2): 250-251.
15. Park JE, Jung S, Kim A, et al (2018). MERS transmission and risk factors: a systematic review. BMC Public Health, 18 (1): 574.
16. Cattaruzza MS, Zagà V, Gallus S, et al (2020). Tobacco smoking and COVID-19 pandemic: old and new issues. A summary of the evidence from the scientific literature. Acta Biomed, 91 (2): 106-112.
17. Guo FR (2020). Active smoking is associated with severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19 ): An update of a meta-analysis. Tob Induc Dis, 18: 37.
18. Lo E, Lasnier B (2020). Active smoking and severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): The use of significance testing leads to an erroneous conclusion. Eur J Intern Med, 77: 125-126.
19. Carmona-Bayonas A, Jimenez-Fonseca P, Sanchez Arraez A, et al (2020). Does active smoking worsen Covid-19? Eur J Intern Med, 77: 129-131.
20. Gallus S, Lugo A, Gorini (2020). No double-edged sword and no doubt about the relation between smoking and COVID-19 severity. Eur J Intern Med, 77: 33-35.
21. Matricardi PM, Negro RWD, Nisini R (2020). The first, holistic immunological model of COVID-19: Implications for prevention, diagnosis, and public health measures. Pediatr Allergy Immunol, 31 (5): 454-470.
22. Aghapour M, Raee P, Moghaddam SJ, et al (2018). Airway Epithelial Barrier Dysfunction in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Role of Cigarette Smoke Exposure. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 58 (2): 157-169.
23. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, et al (2020). SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor. Cell, 181 (2): 271-280.
24. Brake SJ, Barnsley K, Lu W, et al (2020). Smoking Upregulates Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme-2 Receptor: A Potential Adhesion Site for Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (Covid-19). J Clin Med, 9(3):841.
25. Sungnak W, Huang N, Becavin, et al (2020). SARS-CoV-2 entry factors are highly expressed in nasal epithelial cells together with innate immune genes. Nat Med, 26 (5): 681-687.
26. Leung JM, Yang CX, Tam A, et al (2020). ACE-2 expression in the small airway epithelia of smokers and COPD patients: implications for COVID-19. Eur Respir J, 55(5):2000688.
27. Smith JC, Sausville EL, Girish V, et al (2020). Cigarette Smoke Exposure and Inflammatory Signaling Increase the Expression of the SARS-CoV-2 Receptor ACE2 in the Respiratory Tract. Developmental Cell, 53 (5): 514-529.
28. Dittmann M, Hoffmann HH, Scull MA, et al (2015). A serpin shapes the extracellular environment to prevent influenza A virus maturation. Cell, 160 (4): 631-643.
29. Jean F, Stella K, Liu G, et al (1998). alpha1-Antitrypsin Portland, a bioengineered serpin highly selective for furin: application as an antipathogenic agent. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 95 (13): 7293-8.
30. Nguyen HM, Torres JA, Agrawal, et al (2020). Nicotine Impairs the Response of Lung Epithelial Cells to IL-22. Mediators Inflamm, 2020: 6705428.
31. Li X, Geng M, Meng L, et al (2020). Molecular immune pathogenesis and diagnosis of COVID-19. J Pharm Anal, 10 (2): 102-108.
32. Barnes BJ, Adrover JM, Baxter-Stoltzfus A (2020). Targeting potential drivers of COVID-19: Neutrophil extracellular traps. J Exp Med, 217(6):e20200652.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 50 No 3 (2021) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijph.v50i3.5582 | |
| Keywords | ||
| COVID-19 Virus Smoking | ||
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
HE Y, SUN J, DING X, WANG Q. Mechanisms in Which Smoking Increases the Risk of COVID-19 Infection: A Narrative Review. Iran J Public Health. 2021;50(3):431-437.
