Carcinogen Risk Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocar-bons in Drinking Water, Using Probabilistic Approaches
-
Hamid KARYAB
,
Masud YUNESIAN
,
Simin NASSERI
,
Noushin RASTKARI
,
Amirhosein MAHVI
,
Ramin NABIZADEH
Abstract
Background: This study was focused on the probability of carcinogen risk of low-level ingestion and dermal exposure with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from drinking water in Tehran, capital of Iran.
Methods: Concentrations of 16 PAHs were measured in the tap, bottled and heated tap water in four different seasons. Using a questionnaire-based survey, exposure with PAHs from drinking water was evaluated via direct ingestion, swimming, washing and showering. Finally, a comprehensive risk assessment was performed in four age groups. Rank correlation was used to represent variability in risk analysis and obtained coefficients were used for sensitivity analysis. In addition, Monte Carlo simulation was implemented to determine risk probability distributions and to calculate cumulative probability of the total risks in different age groups.
Results: The lifetime average daily dose and the dermal absorbed dose were 0.69E-06 and 1.33E-05 mg/kg/day, respectively. The total estimated excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) of ingestion and dermal exposure were 1.57E-05 and 17.24E-05.
Conclusion: Sum of estimated ingestion and dermal ELCR was 18.81E-05, which was higher than the acceptable value recommended by WHO. It means a total of 1504 lifetime cancer cases in residents of Tehran. Monte Carlo simulation indicated that risk probability above the acceptable level was 96.2% in dermal exposure. Moreover, sensitivity analysis indicated that tap water consumption (Pspearman >0.92) and washing activities (Pspearman>0.95) had the greatest correlation on the cancer risk.
Ritter L, Solomon K, Sibley P, Hall K, Keen P, Mattu G, Linton B (2002). Sources, pathways and relative risks of contaminants in surface water and groundwater: a perspective prepared for the Walkerton inquiry. J Toxicol Environ Health A, 65(1):1–142.
Patrolecco L, Ademollo N, Capri S, Pagnotta R, Polesello S (2010). Occurrence of priority hazardous PAHs in water, suspended particulate matter, sediment and common eels (Anguilla anguilla) in the urban stretch of the River Tiber (Italy). Chemosphere, 81(11): 1386-1392.
Olivella MA (2006). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in rainwater and surface waters of Lake Maggiore, a subalpine lake in Northern Italy. Chemosphere, 63(1): 116-131.
Ngabe B, Bidleman TF, Scott GI (2000). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in storm runoff from urban and coastal South Carolina. Sci Total Environ, 255(1-3): 1-9.
Martins CC, Bícego MC, Mahiques M.M, Figueira RC, Tessler M.G, Montone RC (2011). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a large South American industrial coastal area (Santos Estuary, Southeastern Brazil): Sources and depositional history. Mar Pollut Bull, 63(5-12): 452-458.
Vidal M, Domínguez J, Luís A (2011). Spatial and temporal patterns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in eggs of a coastal bird from northwestern Iberia after a major oil spill. Sci Total Environ, 409(13): 2668-2673.
Anderson LM, Diwan BA, Fear NT, Roman E (2000). Critical windows of exposure for children's health: cancer in human epidemiological studies and neoplasm in experimental animal models. Environ Health Perspect, 108(Suppl 3): 573–594.
Singh VK, Patel DK, Jyoti, Ram S, Mathur N, Siddiqui MKJ (2008). Blood levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in children and their association with oxidative stress indices: An Indian perspective. Clin Biochem, 41(3): 152-161.
Gurbani D, Bharti SK, Kumar A, Pandey AK, Ana FREE, Verma A, Husain Khan A, Patel DK, Mudiam MKR, Jain S.K, Roy R, Dhawan A (2013). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their quinones modulate the metabolic profile and induce DNA damage in human alveolar and bronchiolar cells. Int J Hyg Environ Health, 216(5): 553-565.
WHO (2011). Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. fourth edition. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44584/1/9789241548151_eng.pdf.
WHO (2001). Human exposure assessment, an introduction. Available from: www.imm.ki.se/publ/PDF/HEAboken.pdf.
EPA (2005). Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment, Risk Assessment Forum U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available from: www.epa.gov/risk_assessment/guidance.htm.
Wu B, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Chen S (2011). Health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the source water and drinking water of China: Quantitative analysis based on published monitoring data. Sci Total Environ, 410–411: 112-118.
Pardakhti AR, Bidhendi GR, Torabian A, Karbassi A, Yunesian M (2011). Comparative cancer risk assessment of THMs in drinking water from well water sources and surface water sources. Environ Monit Assess, 179(1-4):499-507.
Pongpiachan, Tipmanee D, Deelaman W, Muprasit J, Feldens P, Schwarzer K (2013). Risk assessment of the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in coastal areas of Thailand affected by the 2004 tsunami. Mar Pollut Bull, 76 (1-2): 370-378.
Aziz F, Syed JH, Malik RF, Katsoyiannis A, Mahmood A, Li J, Zhang G, Jones KC (2014). Occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Soan River, Pakistan: Insights into distribution, composition, sources and ecological risk assessment. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 109: 77-84.
Gute BD, Grunwald GD, Basak SC (1999). Prediction of the dermal penetration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): a hierarchical QSAE approach. SAR QSAR Environ Res, 10(1): 1–15.
USEPA (2010). Analytical Methods Approved for Drinking Water Compliance Monitoring. https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=P100J7BF.txt.
Li N, Lee HK (2001). Solid-phase extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface water: Negative effect of humic acid. J Chromatogr A, 921(2): 255-263.
Karyab H, Yunesian M, Nasseri S, Mahvi A.H, Ahmadkhaniha R., Rastkari N, Nabizadeh R (2013). Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in drinking water of Tehran. J Environ Health Sci Eng, 11 (1): 25.
Nisbet ICT, LaGoy PK (1992). Toxic Equivalency Factors (TEFs) for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 16 (3): 290-300.
USEPA (2012). Handbook for Implementing the Supplemental Cancer Guidance. https://www.epa.gov/risk/risk-assessment-guidelines.
USEPA (1989). Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part A). https://www.epa.gov/risk/risk-assessment-guidance-superfund-rags-part.
USEPA (2004). Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Human Health Evaluation Manual, (Part E, Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment). https://www.epa.gov/risk/risk-assessment-guidance-superfund-rags-part-e.
Chen SC, Liao CM (2006). Health risk assessment on human exposed to environmental polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pollution sources. Sci Total Environ, 366(1): 112-123.
Knafla A., Phillipps KA, Brecher RW, Petrovic S, Richardson M (2006). Development of a dermal cancer slope factor for benzo[a]pyrene. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 45(2): 159–168.
Qu C, Li B, Wu H, Wang S, Giesy JP (2015). Multi-pathway assessment of human health risk posed by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environ Geochem Health, 37(3): 587-601.
Gungormus E, Tuncel S, Hakan Tecer L, Sofuoglu SC (2014). Inhalation and dermal exposure to atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and associated carcinogenic risks in a relatively small city. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 108: 106-113.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 45 No 11 (2016) | |
| Section | Original Article(s) | |
| Keywords | ||
| Drinking water Risk assessment Uncertainties Iran | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
